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باز با سلام!(همه تاپیکام اینجور شروع میشن:92
خب دوستان خیلی از ماها نیاز به سوال داریم و توش شکی نیست...و نکته اصلی اینه خیلی از ما نیاز به سوال انگلیسی داریم تا با بعضی اصطلاحات آشنا بشیم....
داشتم سرچ میکردم به سایت معتبر GRE رسیدم دیدم2 آزمون زیست خیلی مفیدی توی این سایت هستش...خیلی سوال توشون هست بد نیست یه نگاهی بهشون بندازین:1:
خواستم با شما اشتراک بذارم چون بعضا پیام دریافت میکنم که نمونه سوال خوب دارم یا نه....
خلاصه باقیات صالحاته:4:
مباحث سوالا توی آزمون بیولوژی اولی عبارتند از:
Content Specifications
The approximate distribution of questions by content category is shown below.
I. CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (33–34%)
Fundamentals of cellular biology, genetics and molecular biology are addressed.
Major topics in cellular structure and function include metabolic pathways and their regulation, membrane dynamics and cell surfaces, organelles, cytoskeleton, and cell cycle.
Major areas in genetics and molecular biology include chromatin and chromosomal structure, genomic organization and maintenance, and the regulation of gene expression.
The cellular basis of immunity and the mechanisms of antigen-antibody interactions are included. Distinctions between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are considered where appropriate.
Attention is also given to experimental methodology.
Cellular Structure and Function (16–17%)
Biological compounds
Macromolecular structure and bonding
Abiotic origin of biological molecules
Enzyme activity, receptor binding and regulation
Major metabolic pathways and regulation
Respiration, fermentation and photosynthesis
Synthesis and degradation of macromolecules
Hormonal control and intracellular messengers
Membrane dynamics and cell surfaces
Transport, endocytosis and exocytosis
Electrical potentials and transmitter substances
Mechanisms of cell recognition, cell junctions and plasmodesmata
Cell wall and extracellular matrix
Organelles: structure, function, synthesis and targeting
Nucleus, mitochondria and plastids
Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes
Golgi apparatus and secretory vesicles
Lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles
Cytoskeleton, motility and shape
Actin-based systems
Microtubule-based systems
Intermediate filaments
Bacterial flagella and movement
Cell cycle, growth, division and regulation (including signal transduction)
Methods
Microscopy (e.g., electron, light, fluorescence)
Separation (e.g., centrifugation, gel filtration, PAGE, fluorescence-activated cell sorting [FACS])
Immunological (e.g., Western Blotting, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence)
Genetics and Molecular Biology (16–17%)
Genetic foundations
Mendelian inheritance
Pedigree analysis
Prokaryotic genetics (transformation, transduction and conjugation)
Genetic mapping
Chromatin and chromosomes
Nucleosomes
Karyotypes
Chromosomal aberrations
Polytene chromosomes
Genome sequence organization
Introns and exons
Single-copy and repetitive DNA
Transposable elements
Genome maintenance
DNA replication
DNA mutation and repair
Gene expression and regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes: mechanisms
The operon
Promoters and enhancers
Transcription factors
RNA and protein synthesis
Processing and modifications of both RNA and protein
Gene expression and regulation: effects
Control of normal development
Cancer and oncogenes
Whole genome expression (e.g., microarrays)
Regulation of gene expression by RNAi (e.g., siRNA)
Epigenetics
Immunobiology
Cellular basis of immunity
Antibody diversity and synthesis
Antigen-antibody interactions
Bacteriophages, animal viruses and plant viruses
Viral genomes, replication, and assembly
Virus-host cell interactions
Recombinant DNA methodology
Restriction endonucleases
Blotting and hybridization
Restriction fragment length polymorphisms
DNA cloning, sequencing and analysis
Polymerase chain reaction
II. ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY (33–34%)
The structure, physiology, behavior and development of plants and animals are addressed.
Topics covered include nutrient procurement and processing, gas exchange, internal transport, regulation of fluids, control mechanisms and effectors, and reproduction in autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms.
Examples of developmental phenomena range from fertilization through differentiation and morphogenesis.
Perceptions and responses to environmental stimuli are examined as they pertain to both plants and animals.
Major distinguishing characteristics and phylogenetic relationships of selected groups from the various kingdoms are also covered.
Animal Structure, Function and Organization (10%)
Exchange with environment
Nutrient, salt and water exchange
Gas exchange
Energy
Internal transport and exchange
Circulatory and digestive systems
Support and movement
Support systems (external, internal and hydrostatic)
Movement systems (flagellar, ciliary and muscular)
Integration and control mechanisms
Nervous and endocrine systems
Behavior (communication, orientation, learning and instinct)
Metabolic rates (temperature, body size and activity)
Animal Reproduction and Development (6%)
Reproductive structures
Meiosis, gametogenesis and fertilization
Early development (e.g., polarity, cleavage and gastrulation)
Developmental processes (e.g., induction, determination, differentiation, morphogenesis and metamorphosis)
External control mechanisms (e.g., photoperiod)
Plant Structure, Function and Organization, with Emphasis on Flowering Plants (7%)
Organs, tissue systems, and tissues
Water transport, including absorption and transpiration
Phloem transport and storage
Mineral nutrition
Plant energetics (e.g., respiration and photosynthesis)
Plant Reproduction, Growth and Development, with Emphasis on Flowering Plants (5%)
Reproductive structures
Meiosis and sporogenesis
Gametogenesis and fertilization
Embryogeny and seed development
Meristems, growth, morphogenesis and differentiation
Control mechanisms (e.g., hormones, photoperiod and tropisms)
Diversity of Life (6%)
Archaea
Morphology, physiology and identification
Bacteria (including cyanobacteria)
Morphology, physiology, pathology and identification
Protista
Protozoa, other heterotrophic Protista (slime molds and Oomycota) and autotrophic Protista
Major distinguishing characteristics
Phylogenetic relationships
Importance (e.g., eutrophication, disease)
Fungi
Distinctive features of major phyla (vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction)
Generalized life cycles
Importance (e.g., decomposition, biodegradation, antibiotics and pathogenicity)
Lichens
Animalia with emphasis on major phyla
Major distinguishing characteristics
Phylogenetic relationships
Plantae with emphasis on major phyla
Alternation of generations
Major distinguishing characteristics
Phylogenetic relationships
III. ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION (33–34%)
This section deals with the interactions of organisms and their environment, emphasizing biological principles at levels above the individual.
Ecological and evolutionary topics are given equal weight.
Ecological questions range from physiological adaptations to the functioning of ecosystems.
Although principles are emphasized, some questions may consider applications to current environmental problems.
Questions in evolution range from its genetic foundations through evolutionary processes to their consequences.
Evolution is considered at the molecular, individual, population and higher levels.
Principles of ecology, genetics and evolution are interrelated in many questions.
Some questions may require quantitative skills, including the interpretation of simple mathematical models.
Ecology (16–17%)
Environment/organism interaction
Biogeographic patterns
Physiological ecology
Temporal patterns (e.g., seasonal fluctuations)
Behavioral ecology
Habitat selection
Mating systems
Social systems
Resource acquisition
Population Structure and Function
Population dynamics/regulation
Demography and life history strategies
Communities
Direct and indirect interspecific interactions
Community structure and diversity
Change and succession
Ecosystems
Productivity and energy flow
Chemical cycling
Evolution (16–17%)
Genetic variability
Origins (mutations, linkage, recombination and chromosomal alterations)
Levels (e.g., polymorphism and heritability)
Spatial patterns (e.g., clines and ecotypes)
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
Evolutionary processes
Gene flow and genetic drift
Natural selection and its dynamics
Levels of selection (e.g., individual and group)
Trade-offs and genetic correlations
Natural selection and genome evolution
Synonymous vs. nonsynonymous nucleotide ratios
Evolutionary consequences
Fitness and adaptation
Speciation
Systematics and phylogeny
Convergence, divergence and extinction
Coevolution
History of life
Origin of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Fossil record
Paleontology and paleoecology
Lateral transfer of genetic sequences
مباحث آزمون بعدی:
Content Specifications
I. BIOCHEMISTRY — 36%
Chemical and Physical Foundations
Thermodynamics and kinetics
Redox states
Water, pH, acid-base reactions and buffers
Solutions and equilibria
Solute-solvent interactions
Chemical interactions and bonding
Chemical reaction mechanisms
Structural Biology: Structure, Assembly, Organization and Dynamics
Small molecules
Macromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, polysaccharides, proteins and complex lipids)
Supramolecular complexes (e.g., membranes, ribosomes and multienzyme complexes)
Catalysis and Binding
Enzyme reaction mechanisms and kinetics
Ligand-protein interaction (e.g., hormone receptors, substrates and effectors, transport proteins and antigen-antibody interactions)
Major Metabolic Pathways
Carbon, nitrogen and sulfur assimilation
Anabolism
Catabolism
Synthesis and degradation of macromolecules
Bioenergetics (including respiration and photosynthesis)
Energy transformations at the substrate level
Electron transport
Proton and chemical gradients
Energy coupling (e.g., phosphorylation and transport)
Regulation and Integration of Metabolism
Covalent modification of enzymes
Allosteric regulation
Compartmentalization
Hormones
Methods
Biophysical approaches (e.g., spectroscopy, x-ray, crystallography, mass spectroscopy)
Isotopes
Separation techniques (e.g., centrifugation, chromatography and electrophoresis)
Immunotechniques
II. CELL BIOLOGY — 28%
Methods of importance to cellular biology, such as fluorescence probes (e.g., FRAP, FRET and GFP) and imaging, will be covered as appropriate within the context of the content below.
Cellular Compartments of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes: Organization, Dynamics and Functions
Cellular membrane systems (e.g., structure and transport across membrane)
Nucleus (e.g., envelope and matrix)
Mitochondria and chloroplasts (e.g., biogenesis and evolution)
Cell Surface and Communication
Extracellular matrix (including cell walls)
Cell adhesion and junctions
Signal transduction
Receptor function
Excitable membrane systems
Cytoskeleton, Motility and Shape
Regulation of assembly and disassembly of filament systems
Motor function, regulation and diversity
Protein, Processing, Targeting and Turnover
Translocation across membranes
Posttranslational modification
Intracellular trafficking
Secretion and endocytosis
Protein turnover (e.g., proteosomes, lysosomes, damaged protein response)
Cell Division, Differentiation and Development
Cell cycle, mitosis and cytokinesis
Meiosis and gametogenesis
Fertilization and early embryonic development (including positional information, homeotic genes, tissue-specific expression, nuclear and cytoplasmic interactions, growth factors and induction, environment, stem cells and polarity)
III. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND GENETICS — 36%
Genetic Foundations
Mendelian and non-Mendelian inheritance
Transformation, transduction and conjugation
Recombination and complementation
Mutational analysis
Genetic mapping and linkage analysis
Chromatin and Chromosomes
Karyotypes
Translocations, inversions, deletions and duplications
Aneuploidy and polyploidy
Structure
Epigenetics
Genomics
Genome structure
Physical mapping
Repeated DNA and gene families
Gene identification
Transposable elements
Bioinformatics
Proteomics
Molecular evolution
Genome Maintenance
DNA replication
DNA damage and repair
DNA modification
DNA recombination and gene conversion
Gene Expression
The genetic code
Transcription/transcriptional profiling
RNA processing
Translation
Gene Regulation
Positive and negative control of the operon
Promoter recognition by RNA polymerases
Attenuation and antitermination
Cis-acting regulatory elements
Trans-acting regulatory factors
Gene rearrangements and amplifications
Small non-coding RNA (e.g., siRNA, microRNA)
Viruses
Genome replication and regulation
Virus assembly
Virus-host interactions
Methods
Restriction maps and PCR
Nucleic acid blotting and hybridization
DNA cloning in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Sequencing and analysis
Protein-nucleic acid interaction
Transgenic organisms
Microarrays
خب دوستان خیلی از ماها نیاز به سوال داریم و توش شکی نیست...و نکته اصلی اینه خیلی از ما نیاز به سوال انگلیسی داریم تا با بعضی اصطلاحات آشنا بشیم....
داشتم سرچ میکردم به سایت معتبر GRE رسیدم دیدم2 آزمون زیست خیلی مفیدی توی این سایت هستش...خیلی سوال توشون هست بد نیست یه نگاهی بهشون بندازین:1:
خواستم با شما اشتراک بذارم چون بعضا پیام دریافت میکنم که نمونه سوال خوب دارم یا نه....
خلاصه باقیات صالحاته:4:
مباحث سوالا توی آزمون بیولوژی اولی عبارتند از:
Content Specifications
The approximate distribution of questions by content category is shown below.
I. CELLULAR AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (33–34%)
Fundamentals of cellular biology, genetics and molecular biology are addressed.
Major topics in cellular structure and function include metabolic pathways and their regulation, membrane dynamics and cell surfaces, organelles, cytoskeleton, and cell cycle.
Major areas in genetics and molecular biology include chromatin and chromosomal structure, genomic organization and maintenance, and the regulation of gene expression.
The cellular basis of immunity and the mechanisms of antigen-antibody interactions are included. Distinctions between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are considered where appropriate.
Attention is also given to experimental methodology.
Cellular Structure and Function (16–17%)
Biological compounds
Macromolecular structure and bonding
Abiotic origin of biological molecules
Enzyme activity, receptor binding and regulation
Major metabolic pathways and regulation
Respiration, fermentation and photosynthesis
Synthesis and degradation of macromolecules
Hormonal control and intracellular messengers
Membrane dynamics and cell surfaces
Transport, endocytosis and exocytosis
Electrical potentials and transmitter substances
Mechanisms of cell recognition, cell junctions and plasmodesmata
Cell wall and extracellular matrix
Organelles: structure, function, synthesis and targeting
Nucleus, mitochondria and plastids
Endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes
Golgi apparatus and secretory vesicles
Lysosomes, peroxisomes and vacuoles
Cytoskeleton, motility and shape
Actin-based systems
Microtubule-based systems
Intermediate filaments
Bacterial flagella and movement
Cell cycle, growth, division and regulation (including signal transduction)
Methods
Microscopy (e.g., electron, light, fluorescence)
Separation (e.g., centrifugation, gel filtration, PAGE, fluorescence-activated cell sorting [FACS])
Immunological (e.g., Western Blotting, immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence)
Genetics and Molecular Biology (16–17%)
Genetic foundations
Mendelian inheritance
Pedigree analysis
Prokaryotic genetics (transformation, transduction and conjugation)
Genetic mapping
Chromatin and chromosomes
Nucleosomes
Karyotypes
Chromosomal aberrations
Polytene chromosomes
Genome sequence organization
Introns and exons
Single-copy and repetitive DNA
Transposable elements
Genome maintenance
DNA replication
DNA mutation and repair
Gene expression and regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes: mechanisms
The operon
Promoters and enhancers
Transcription factors
RNA and protein synthesis
Processing and modifications of both RNA and protein
Gene expression and regulation: effects
Control of normal development
Cancer and oncogenes
Whole genome expression (e.g., microarrays)
Regulation of gene expression by RNAi (e.g., siRNA)
Epigenetics
Immunobiology
Cellular basis of immunity
Antibody diversity and synthesis
Antigen-antibody interactions
Bacteriophages, animal viruses and plant viruses
Viral genomes, replication, and assembly
Virus-host cell interactions
Recombinant DNA methodology
Restriction endonucleases
Blotting and hybridization
Restriction fragment length polymorphisms
DNA cloning, sequencing and analysis
Polymerase chain reaction
II. ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY (33–34%)
The structure, physiology, behavior and development of plants and animals are addressed.
Topics covered include nutrient procurement and processing, gas exchange, internal transport, regulation of fluids, control mechanisms and effectors, and reproduction in autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms.
Examples of developmental phenomena range from fertilization through differentiation and morphogenesis.
Perceptions and responses to environmental stimuli are examined as they pertain to both plants and animals.
Major distinguishing characteristics and phylogenetic relationships of selected groups from the various kingdoms are also covered.
Animal Structure, Function and Organization (10%)
Exchange with environment
Nutrient, salt and water exchange
Gas exchange
Energy
Internal transport and exchange
Circulatory and digestive systems
Support and movement
Support systems (external, internal and hydrostatic)
Movement systems (flagellar, ciliary and muscular)
Integration and control mechanisms
Nervous and endocrine systems
Behavior (communication, orientation, learning and instinct)
Metabolic rates (temperature, body size and activity)
Animal Reproduction and Development (6%)
Reproductive structures
Meiosis, gametogenesis and fertilization
Early development (e.g., polarity, cleavage and gastrulation)
Developmental processes (e.g., induction, determination, differentiation, morphogenesis and metamorphosis)
External control mechanisms (e.g., photoperiod)
Plant Structure, Function and Organization, with Emphasis on Flowering Plants (7%)
Organs, tissue systems, and tissues
Water transport, including absorption and transpiration
Phloem transport and storage
Mineral nutrition
Plant energetics (e.g., respiration and photosynthesis)
Plant Reproduction, Growth and Development, with Emphasis on Flowering Plants (5%)
Reproductive structures
Meiosis and sporogenesis
Gametogenesis and fertilization
Embryogeny and seed development
Meristems, growth, morphogenesis and differentiation
Control mechanisms (e.g., hormones, photoperiod and tropisms)
Diversity of Life (6%)
Archaea
Morphology, physiology and identification
Bacteria (including cyanobacteria)
Morphology, physiology, pathology and identification
Protista
Protozoa, other heterotrophic Protista (slime molds and Oomycota) and autotrophic Protista
Major distinguishing characteristics
Phylogenetic relationships
Importance (e.g., eutrophication, disease)
Fungi
Distinctive features of major phyla (vegetative, asexual and sexual reproduction)
Generalized life cycles
Importance (e.g., decomposition, biodegradation, antibiotics and pathogenicity)
Lichens
Animalia with emphasis on major phyla
Major distinguishing characteristics
Phylogenetic relationships
Plantae with emphasis on major phyla
Alternation of generations
Major distinguishing characteristics
Phylogenetic relationships
III. ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION (33–34%)
This section deals with the interactions of organisms and their environment, emphasizing biological principles at levels above the individual.
Ecological and evolutionary topics are given equal weight.
Ecological questions range from physiological adaptations to the functioning of ecosystems.
Although principles are emphasized, some questions may consider applications to current environmental problems.
Questions in evolution range from its genetic foundations through evolutionary processes to their consequences.
Evolution is considered at the molecular, individual, population and higher levels.
Principles of ecology, genetics and evolution are interrelated in many questions.
Some questions may require quantitative skills, including the interpretation of simple mathematical models.
Ecology (16–17%)
Environment/organism interaction
Biogeographic patterns
Physiological ecology
Temporal patterns (e.g., seasonal fluctuations)
Behavioral ecology
Habitat selection
Mating systems
Social systems
Resource acquisition
Population Structure and Function
Population dynamics/regulation
Demography and life history strategies
Communities
Direct and indirect interspecific interactions
Community structure and diversity
Change and succession
Ecosystems
Productivity and energy flow
Chemical cycling
Evolution (16–17%)
Genetic variability
Origins (mutations, linkage, recombination and chromosomal alterations)
Levels (e.g., polymorphism and heritability)
Spatial patterns (e.g., clines and ecotypes)
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
Evolutionary processes
Gene flow and genetic drift
Natural selection and its dynamics
Levels of selection (e.g., individual and group)
Trade-offs and genetic correlations
Natural selection and genome evolution
Synonymous vs. nonsynonymous nucleotide ratios
Evolutionary consequences
Fitness and adaptation
Speciation
Systematics and phylogeny
Convergence, divergence and extinction
Coevolution
History of life
Origin of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Fossil record
Paleontology and paleoecology
Lateral transfer of genetic sequences
مباحث آزمون بعدی:
Content Specifications
I. BIOCHEMISTRY — 36%
Chemical and Physical Foundations
Thermodynamics and kinetics
Redox states
Water, pH, acid-base reactions and buffers
Solutions and equilibria
Solute-solvent interactions
Chemical interactions and bonding
Chemical reaction mechanisms
Structural Biology: Structure, Assembly, Organization and Dynamics
Small molecules
Macromolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, polysaccharides, proteins and complex lipids)
Supramolecular complexes (e.g., membranes, ribosomes and multienzyme complexes)
Catalysis and Binding
Enzyme reaction mechanisms and kinetics
Ligand-protein interaction (e.g., hormone receptors, substrates and effectors, transport proteins and antigen-antibody interactions)
Major Metabolic Pathways
Carbon, nitrogen and sulfur assimilation
Anabolism
Catabolism
Synthesis and degradation of macromolecules
Bioenergetics (including respiration and photosynthesis)
Energy transformations at the substrate level
Electron transport
Proton and chemical gradients
Energy coupling (e.g., phosphorylation and transport)
Regulation and Integration of Metabolism
Covalent modification of enzymes
Allosteric regulation
Compartmentalization
Hormones
Methods
Biophysical approaches (e.g., spectroscopy, x-ray, crystallography, mass spectroscopy)
Isotopes
Separation techniques (e.g., centrifugation, chromatography and electrophoresis)
Immunotechniques
II. CELL BIOLOGY — 28%
Methods of importance to cellular biology, such as fluorescence probes (e.g., FRAP, FRET and GFP) and imaging, will be covered as appropriate within the context of the content below.
Cellular Compartments of Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes: Organization, Dynamics and Functions
Cellular membrane systems (e.g., structure and transport across membrane)
Nucleus (e.g., envelope and matrix)
Mitochondria and chloroplasts (e.g., biogenesis and evolution)
Cell Surface and Communication
Extracellular matrix (including cell walls)
Cell adhesion and junctions
Signal transduction
Receptor function
Excitable membrane systems
Cytoskeleton, Motility and Shape
Regulation of assembly and disassembly of filament systems
Motor function, regulation and diversity
Protein, Processing, Targeting and Turnover
Translocation across membranes
Posttranslational modification
Intracellular trafficking
Secretion and endocytosis
Protein turnover (e.g., proteosomes, lysosomes, damaged protein response)
Cell Division, Differentiation and Development
Cell cycle, mitosis and cytokinesis
Meiosis and gametogenesis
Fertilization and early embryonic development (including positional information, homeotic genes, tissue-specific expression, nuclear and cytoplasmic interactions, growth factors and induction, environment, stem cells and polarity)
III. MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND GENETICS — 36%
Genetic Foundations
Mendelian and non-Mendelian inheritance
Transformation, transduction and conjugation
Recombination and complementation
Mutational analysis
Genetic mapping and linkage analysis
Chromatin and Chromosomes
Karyotypes
Translocations, inversions, deletions and duplications
Aneuploidy and polyploidy
Structure
Epigenetics
Genomics
Genome structure
Physical mapping
Repeated DNA and gene families
Gene identification
Transposable elements
Bioinformatics
Proteomics
Molecular evolution
Genome Maintenance
DNA replication
DNA damage and repair
DNA modification
DNA recombination and gene conversion
Gene Expression
The genetic code
Transcription/transcriptional profiling
RNA processing
Translation
Gene Regulation
Positive and negative control of the operon
Promoter recognition by RNA polymerases
Attenuation and antitermination
Cis-acting regulatory elements
Trans-acting regulatory factors
Gene rearrangements and amplifications
Small non-coding RNA (e.g., siRNA, microRNA)
Viruses
Genome replication and regulation
Virus assembly
Virus-host interactions
Methods
Restriction maps and PCR
Nucleic acid blotting and hybridization
DNA cloning in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
Sequencing and analysis
Protein-nucleic acid interaction
Transgenic organisms
Microarrays